Absolute Zero
Discussion
Amontons hypothesized a state devoid of heat in a paper published in 1703.
All systems in thermodynamic equilibrium at absolute zero have vanishing entropy. This principle is called the Nernst heat theorem, or. the third law of thermodynamics. Walther Nernst (1864–1941) Germany.
It is impossible reduce the temperature of any systems to absolute zero in a finite number of steps.
The Laws of Thermodynamics
- There is a game.
- You can't win.
- You must lose.
- You can't quit.
Onnes' helium liquefaction cascade: chloromethane, ethylene, oxygen, liquid air, hydrogen, helium. Onnes had a monopoly on the production of liquid helium
William Francis Giauque & Peter Joseph William Debye, adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic salts: iron ammonium alum, chromium potassium alum, cerium magnesium nitrate
| date | kelvin temperature |
details |
|---|---|---|
| 1724 | 233 | Cascade series Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, Netherlands |
| 1834 | 163 | Mixture of dry ice, snow, and ether Charles Thilorier, France |
| 1877 | 133 | Droplets of liquid oxygen Raoul Pictet, Geneva/Louis Cailletet, France |
| 1883 | 90 | Measurable quantity of liquid oxygen Zygmunt Wróblewski & Karol Olszewski, Poland |
| 1886 | 54 | Oxygen solidified James Dewar, Robert Lennox & James Heath, England |
| 1898 | 21 | Hydrogen liquefied James Dewar, Robert Lennox & James Heath, England |
| 1899 | 14 | Hydrogen solidified James Dewar, Robert Lennox & James Heath, England |
| 1908 | 4 | Helium liquefied Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Netherlands |
| 1908 | 1 | Evaporation of liquid helium Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Netherlands |
| 1926 | 0.95 | Helium solidified under 26 atm pressure Willem Keesom, Netherlands |
| 1933 | 0.27 | Adiabatic demagnetization of paramagnetic salts Wander de Haas, Netherlands |
| 1956 | 16 × 10−6 | Adiabatic nuclear demagnetization Nicholas Kurti & Francis Simon, England |
| 1970s | ? | ? ? |
| 1980s | ? | ? ? |
| 1993 1999 2000 |
280 × 10−12 250 × 10−12 100 × 10−12 |
Adiabatic nuclear demagnetization of rhodium Helsinki University of Technology |
| 2015 | 050 × 10−12 | Matter wave lensing Stanford University, California |
superconductivity
superfluidity