Gravitational Potential Energy

Resources

• Black holes
  • Early papers
    • On the Means of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude, &c. of the Fixed Stars…. John Michell. Philosophical Transactions. Vol. 74 (1784).
  • Schwarzschild radius
  • On the gravitational field of a mass point according to Einstein's theory. K. Schwarzschild (translstion by S. Antoci and A. Loinger). Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse. (1916): 189–196 (original german).
  • On the gravitational field of a sphere of incompressible fluid according to Einstein's theory. K. Schwarzschild (translation by S. Antoci). Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse. (1916): 424–434 (original german).
  • Chandrasekhar limit
    • The Limiting Density in White Dwarf Stars. E.C. Stoner. Philosophical Magazine Series 7. Vol. 7 No. 41 (1929): 63–70.
    • The Equilibrium of Dense Stars. E.C. Stoner. Philosophical Magazine Series 7. Vol. 9 No. 60 (1930): 944–963.
    • The Density of White Dwarf Stars. S. Chandrasekhar. Philosophical Magazine Series 7. Vol. 11 No. 70 (1931): 592–596. Reprinted in the Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy. Vol. 15 No. 2 (1994): 105–109.
    • The Maximum Mass of Ideal White Dwarfs. S. Chandrasekhar. Astrophysical Journal. Vol. 74 (1931): 81–82.
    • The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass. S. Chandrasekhar. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 91 (1931): 456–466.
    • Stellar Configurations with Degenerate Cores. S. Chandrasekhar. The Observatory. Vol. 57 (1934): 373–377.
    • The Highly Collapsed Configurations of a Stellar Mass (Second Paper). S. Chandrasekhar. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 95 (1935): 207–225.
  • Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit
    • Static Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations for Spheres of Fluid. R.C. Tolman. Physical Review. Vol. 55 No. 4 (1939): 364–373.
    • On Massive Neutron Cores. J.R. Oppenheimer and G.M. Volkoff. Physical Review. Vol. 55 No. 4 (1939): 374–381.
    • On Continued Gravitational Contraction. J.R. Oppenheimer and H. Snyder. Physical Review. Vol. 56 No. 5 (1939): 455–459.
  • Word origin
    • Black Hole. Michael Quinion. World Wide Words. Short article on the probable origin of the term "black hole".
    • Black Holes in Space. Science News Letter. Vol. 85 No. 3 (1964). Oldest known written use of the term "black hole".
  • Singularity theorem
    • The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology. S.W. Hawking and R. Penrose. Proceedings of the Royal Society. Vol. 314 No. 1519 (1970): 529–548.
  • Evaporation and explosion
    • Black Hole Explosions? S.W. Hawking. Nature. Vol. 248 (1974): 30–31.
    • Particle creation by black holes. S.W. Hawking. Communications in Mathematical Physics. Vol. 43 No. 3 (1975), 199–220.
  • Formation in particle accelerators
    • Ultra Relativistic Particle Collisions. Matthew W. Choptuik, Frans Pretorius. Physical Review Letters. Vol. 104 No. 11 (2010).
    • Will the LHC destroy the world? Sixty Symbols. YouTube (2012). CERN's Large Hadron Collider will NOT destroy our planet. But many of you asked about it — and the "scenarios" are a good excuse to discuss some cool physics.
• Expanding universe
  • Origins
    • Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation. Albert Einstein. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse. (1915): 844–847 [open access copies]. Translated into English as The Field Equations of Gravitation.
    • Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie. Albert Einsterin. Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse. Vol. 7 No. 14 (1917): 142–152.
    • Über die Krümmung des Raumes. Alexander Friedmann. Zeitschrift für Physik. Vol. 10 No. 1 (1922): 377–386. Translated into English as On the curvature of space. Alexander Friedmann. General Relativity and Gravitation. Vol. 31 No. 12 (1999): 1991–2000.
    • Über die Möglichkeiten einer Welt mit konstanter negativer Krümmung des Raumes (On the possibilitiy of a universe with constant negative curvature of space). Alexander Friedmann. Zeitschrift für Physik. Vol. 21 No. 1 (1924): 326–332.
    • Un univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant, rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extra-galactiques. Georges Lemaître. Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles, Sèrie A. Vol. 47 (1927): 49–59. Translated into English as A homogeneous universe of constant mass and increasing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extra-galactic nebulae. Georges Lemaître. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Vol. 91 (1931): 483–490.
    • A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae. Edwin Hubble. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 15 No. 3 (1929): 168–173.
    • Evolution of the Expanding Universe. Georges Lemaître. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 20 No. 1 (1934): 12–17.
    • H₀: The Incredible Shrinking Constant 1925–1975. Virginia Trimble. Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Vol. 108 No. 730 (1996): 1073–1082.
  • Acceleration
    • Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant. Adam G. Riess, et al. Astronomical Journal. Vol. 116 No. 3 (1998): 1009–1038.
    • Measurements of Ω and Λ from 42 High-Redshift Supernovae. Saul Perlmutter, et al. Astrophysical Journal. Vol. 517 No. 2 (1999): 565–586.
    • Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday. Robert R. Caldwell, Marc Kamionkowski, and Nevin N. Weinberg. Physical Review Letters. Vol. 91 (2003): 071301. Open access copy at arXiv.org.
    • Supernovae, Dark Energy and the Accelerating Universe. Saul Perlmutter. Physics Today. Vol. 56 No. 4 (2003).
    • Type Ia Supernova Discoveries at z > 1 from the Hubble Space Telescope: Evidence for Past Deceleration and Constraints on Dark Energy Evolution. Adam G. Riess, et al. Astrophysical Journal. Vol. 607 No. 1 (2004): 665–687.
    • Nobel Prize in Physics 2011to Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt and Adam G. Riess for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae.
• "Rods from God" a.k.a. "orbital telephone poles" a.k.a. "hypervelocity rod bundles"
  • Megamissions and Space Power. A Lecture Presented at the United States Air Force War College Jerry E. Pournelle, PhD. March 20, 1994.
  • Does the United States Need Space-Based Weapons? William L. Spacy. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press (1999).
  • Space Weapons Earth Wars (RAND MR1209). Robert Preston, Dana J. Johnson, Sean J.A. Edwards, Michael D. Miller, Calvin Shipbaugh. Arlington, Virginia: RAND Corporation (2002).
  • 2003 US Air Force Transformation Flight Plan. HQ USAF/XPXC Future Concepts and Transformation Division (2003). Also available from the Homeland Security Digital Library.
  • Rods from God: Space-launched darts that strike like meteors. Eric Adams. Popular Science (2004).
  • GI Joe Retaliation - Tungsten Rod Drop. Reel Physics. YouTube (2013). Jason and Colby shed some light on the destruction that Cobra has brought to London.
• Video on demand
  • Brady Haran
    • Black Holes. Sixty Symbols. YouTube (2009). Crushing the Earth into a Black Hole and looking into the core of the Milky Way.
    • Cosmic Superstrings. Sixty Symbols. YouTube (2013). Professor Ed Copeland on strings and superstrings.
    • Dark Energy & The Big Rip. Sixty Symbols. YouTube (2014). Third in our "trilogy" of extended interviews with Professor Ed Copeland.
    • Inflation & the Universe in a Grapefruit. Sixty Symbols. YouTube (2013). Professor Ed Copeland discusses inflation, the Big Bang, and when the observable universe fit inside a grapefruit.
  • The Mechanical Universe and Beyond (1985)
    • Energy and Eccentricity. The precise orbit of a heavenly body (a planet, asteroid, or comet) is fixed by the laws of conservation of energy and angular momentum.