Discussion

different forces on same object (result?)
different objects with same forces (result?)
different objects with same acceleration (how?)

Lex. II.   Law II. Mutationem motus proportionalem eſſe vi motrici impreſſæ, & fieri ſecundum lineaum rectam qua vis illa imprimitur.   The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.       Si vis aliqua motum quemvis generet; dupla duplum, tripla triplum generabit, ſive ſimul & ſemel, ſive gradatim & ſucceſſive impreſſa fuerit. Et hic motus quoniam in eandem ſemper plagam cum vi generatrice determinatur, ſi corpus antea movebatur, motui ejus vel conſpiranti additur, vel contrario ſubducitur, vel obliquo oblique adjicitur, & cum eo ſecundum utriuſque determinationem componitur.   If any force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion being always directed the same way with the generating force, if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion, according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both.

Newton also defined what he called "the quantity of matter" "the quantity of motion". We now call them "mass" and "momentum", respectively.

Definitio. I.   Definition I. Quantitas materiæ est mensura ejusdem orta ex illius densitate et magnitudine conjunctim.   The quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density and bulk conjunctly.       Aer densitate duplicata, in spatio etiam duplicato, sit quadruplus; in triplicato sextuplus. Idem intelige de nive & pulveribus per compressionem vel liquesactionem condensatis. Et par eft ratio corporum omnium, quæ per caufas quascunque diversimode condensantur. Medii interea, si quod fuerit, interstitia partium libere pervadentis, hic nullam rationem habeo. Hanc autem quantitatem sub nomine corporis vel masse in sequentibus passim intelligo. Innotescit ea per corporis cujusque pondus: Nam ponderi proportionalem esse reperi per experimenta pendulorum accuratissime instituta, uti posthac docebitur.   Thus air of double density, in a double space, is quadruple in quantity; in a triple space, sextuple in quantity. The same thing is to be understood of snow, and fine dust or powders, that are condensed by compression or liquefaction; and of all bodies that are by any caused whatever differently condensed. I have no regard in this place to a medium, if any such there is, that freely pervades the interstices between the parts of bodies. It is this quantity that I mean hereafter everywhere under the name of body or mass. And the same is known by the weight of each body; for it is proportional to the weight, as I have found by experiments on pendulums, very accurately made, which shall be shewn hereafter. Definitio. II.   Definition II. Quantitas motus est mensura ejusdem orta ex velocitate et quantite materiæ conjunctim.   The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising from the velocity and the quantity of matter conjunctly.       Motus totius est summa motuum in partibus singulis; ideoque in corpore duplo majore, æ quali cum velocitate, duplus est, & dupla cum velocitate quadruplus.   The motion of the whole is the sum of the motions of all the parts; and therefore in a body double in quantity, with equal velocity, the motion is double; with twice the velocity it is quadruple.

(Newton, interpreted by Elert) Newton's second law of motion states that …

• acceleration is directly proportional to net force when mass is constant,and
• acceleration is inversely proportional to mass when net force is constant, and consequently
• net force is directly proportional to mass when acceleration is constant.

Newton's second law of motion is more compactly written as an equation that combines these relationships

∑ F = m a

Acceleration is directly proportional to net force and inversely proportional to mass.

Net force equals mass times acceleration. (note: acceleration means change in speed or direction.)

So what is mass?

1. pick an object to be the standard unit mass
2. push mass with reproducible force (or use the principle of action-reaction)
3. measure its acceleration
4. push an unknown mass with the same force
5. measure new acceleration
6. mass is inversely proportional to acceleration

Mass …

• Mass is a measure of resistance to acceleration.
  (More generally, mass is a measure of resistance to change.)
• Mass is a scalar quantity associated with matter.
• When a system is composed of several objects it is the total mass that matters.
• The SI unit of mass is the kilogram [kg].

Mass of Selected Objects
mass (kg)		object		mass (kg)		object
~1053		observable universe		90		the author
1.5 ~ 2	× 1042	milky way		7.72		world's smallest woman
> 6	× 1030	black hole		3 ~ 7		bowling ball
2.8 ~ 6	× 1030	neutron star		0.16		billiard ball
1.99	× 1030	sun
1.90	× 1027	jupiter
5.97	× 1024	earth		~ 3	× 10−6	snowflake
6.42	× 1023	mars		2.18	× 10−8	planck mass
7.35	× 1022	moon		~ 10−12		bacterium
1.25	× 1022	pluto		~ 10−15		virus
1.35	× 1021	earth's hydrosphere
5.14	× 1018	earth's atmosphere		3.95	× 10−25	uranium atom
1.84	× 1015	earth's biosphere		3.06	× 10−25	top quark
~ 150,000		blue whale		1.67	× 10−27	neutron
~ 5000		african elephant		1.67	× 10−27	proton
~ 1500		passenger car		9.11	× 10−31	electron
635		world's heaviest man		< 10−36		limit of neutrino mass
90		the author		< 10−53		limit of photon mass

So what's a force?

Force …

• A force is an interaction that causes acceleration.
  (More generally, a force is an interaction that causes a change.)
• Force is a vector quantity associated with an interaction.
• When several forces act on a system it is the net, external force that matters.
• The SI unit of force is the newton [N = kg m/s²].

When more than one force acts on an object it is the net force that is important. Since force is a vector quantity, use geometry instead of arithmetic when combining forces.

For a force to accelerate an object it must come from outside it. External force. Can't pull yourself up by your own bootstraps. Anyone who says you can is engaging in hyperbole.

Rule of thumb: one newton is approximately equal to a quarter pound

Selected Forces
force (N)	event, process, phenomena
10−14	langevin forces of brownian motion
10−11	molecular motors consuming ATP
10−10	breaking noncovalent bonds (denaturing proteins)
10−09	breaking covalent bonds
860	weight of the author
2,200	peak foot force, 75 kg human, running
140,000	peak foot force, 10,000 kg asian elephant, running

The concept of inertia comes in many forms.

The concepts implied in Newton's Second Law of Motion are found throughout physics.
		cause of change	=	resistance to change	×	rate of change of …
newton's second law		force		mass		velocity		F =  m  dv dt
rotational dynamics		torque		moment of inertia		angular velocity		τ =  I  dω dt
newtonian fluids		shearing stress		viscosity		shear		Fx  =  η  dx/dz A dt
thermal conduction		temperature gradient		r-factor		heat		ΔT =  R  dq dt
ohm's law		potential difference		electrical resistance		charge		V =  R  dq dt
faraday's law		potential difference		inductance		current		V =  L  dI dt